What is Commedia dell’Arte?
Commedia dell’Arte is an Italian Renaissance form that is best known as a style that features characters wearing half masks, of which there are many, but there are also many characters within commedia dell’arte that do not wear masks. Famous characters, such as Harlequin, Pantaloon, Punch and Pierrot have survived across the generations, being assimilated into art, literature, music, opera and film. Translated to English, commedia dell’arte, arguably, means the ‘Professional Comedy’ and the actors of this genre were indeed the first to be officially recognised as professionals. Many practitioners now refer to the form as simply ‘commedia’ as the ‘dell’arte’ was an addition made by Carlo Goldoni in the 18th century, long after commedia’s hey day in the 16th and 17th centuries. Commedia is also a more flexible term that can allow for modern developments within the genre.
Comedy needs an audience and the commedia troupes would perform anywhere an audience could be gathered; in the early days this was in piazzas on raised trestle stages with a simple backdrop, playing to bustling market squares populated by all manner of society. So popular were these performances, that the troupes were soon being invited into the courts of the aristocracy. The Renaissance witnessed a huge surge in artistic creativity, discovery and invention, all of which fed the imagination and narratives of the commedia. Performance troupes emerged in multiple regions of Italy and they began travelling, carrying the genre to France, Germany, Spain, England, Russia to name but a few. Commedia grew to become one of the most influential and enduring theatre styles in the world. The 17th century was the Golden Era for commedia as Italian comics dominated the European stage and the star system was born, firmly establishing acting as a legitimate trade. commedia began to be replicated in cities across Europe and famous Italian troupes travelled on invitations to Royal Courts, such as that of Louis XIV, who was a great advocate of the arts.
“Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Molière, Marivaux, Beaumarchais, Goldoni … Wherever there are witty servants and domineering masters, young wives and old husbands, pompous pedants, thwarted lovers or bragging soldiers, the Commedia is there in spirit and also very often form”
Did you know?
The term ‘commedia dell’arte’ was never used during the 16th and 17th century to describe the form - it was Carlo Goldoni who coined the phrase in his play The Comic Theatre in 1750 in a somewhat derogatory manner.
Contrary to popular belief, commedia was not all improvised - many aspects were thoroughly rehearsed and certain speeches were written.
The first documented appearance of a woman on stage was by actress Vincenza Armani in around 1566 but the most famous First Actress was Isabella Andreini, wife of Francesco Andreini of Il Gelosi, first appearing on stage in 1576.
Shakespeare took direct inspiration from commedia dell’arte for many of his plays. Shakespeare’s Fools are often zanni character types; his romantic leads are clearly inspired by Commedia’s innamorati (the Lovers), his miserable old misers by Pantalone and his pedantic, buffoon-like old men by il Dottore.
From around 1770 to 1900, Harlequin (Arlecchino) was the star of the English Harlequinade, along with Columbine and Pantaloon. This later evolved into Pantomime.
Origins of Commedia dell’Arte
The roots of many characters and plots can be traced back to Roman comedies and even further to Atellan farces (Fabulae Atellanae that date from around 300BC; these rustic farces were so called as they originated from Atella in Italy). The Atellan farces brought forth stock characters: the fool, the trickster, the glutton, the old man … the links to Commedia are undeniable.
Commedia began to take its populist form in the 15th-16th centuries and most likely came about as an evolution of carnival and the rustic street guillare (itinerant satirical storytelling jesters). It is probable that the early performers of commedia zannesca were tradesmen who banded together through local guilds as a post-work form of entertainment. The theatrical style evolved during the 16th century, being varyingly known as commedia all’improvviso (improvised comedy), commedia delle maschere (comedy of the masks) commedia zannesca (zanni comedy) or even commedia mercenaria (mercenary comedy). 1545 is credited as being the official birth of commedia, celebrated internationally by commedia enthusiasts on 25th February.
“On Wednesday February 25th 1545 and extraordinary event took place.
A group of Professional comedians: Vincenzo da Venezia, Francesco de la lira, Hieronimo da San Luca, Giandomenico also known as il Rizo, Giovanni da Treviso, Tòfano de Bastian, headed by a ser Maphio del Re, known as Zanino da Padova, appeared in front the notary Vincenzo Fortuna, in the San Leonardo quarter to put down on notarial paper the formation of a Professional Company of Comedians. It was the birth from scratch of the modern Theatrical Company.” Tonino Pavan’s dedication message for Commedia dell’Arte Day 2021
This legitimate fraternal compagnia paved the way for acting as a recognised profession. Commedia dell’arte was only anointed as such, retrospectively and well after the form had reached mass popularity throughout Europe. It was playwright Carlo Goldoni who, in 1750, wrote rather disparagingly of the actors of the form in his play Il Teatro Comico, referring to it as Commedia dell’Arte.
Early Commedia
At first, performances by commedia troupes took place wherever an audience and some form of stage could be found - indoors or out, commonly performed in piazzas, on a two metre high trestle stage, with a single backdrop. That backdrop evolved with the players to depict a house or a row of houses on a street, often with openings as windows. Commedia performances gained popularity rapidly and the actors saw an opportunity to make profit. They began to sell seats at their performances and the troupes were soon invited to perform in courts and palaces of Dukes and Royalty. Performing groups emerged in different regions of Italy with some character names changing accordingly. It is thought that the characters may well have lampooned familiar locals and almost certainly narratives would have been altered to make local references. The troupes travelled throughout Italy and into Europe arriving in France, Spain, Germany, England and Russia by the end of the 16th century. The development of a language of all languages, grummelot, aided the actors to be understood wherever they went. Grummelot being a gibberish language that uses the paralinguistics of a language - the intonation, rhythm and musicality - to mimic the local dialect, aided by physical antics and bold gestures to be understood.
Very few theatres had been built since Roman times but in 1588, the architect Vincenzo Scamozzi began building Teatro all’Antica in Sabbioneta, Northern Italy as an indoor playing space for Commedia, based on the designs of Roman amphitheatres. Concepts of perspective were beginning to be explored during the Renaissance and the first perspective backdrops were created, depicting street scenes. Teatro all’Antica was the first theatre in modern times that was conceived from the start as theatre building and still stands today as a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Comedy of the Masks
The plays (scenarii) themselves were devised around a loose storyline (canovaccio), featuring fast-paced action, slapstick sequences and simple conflict-driven narratives (frequently focused on love, greed, illness, injustice, starvation). Actors traditionally performed without scripts, relying on a running order (canovaccio) to decide the narrative flow but each actor would have a repertoire for their character that may include rehearsed lazzi (comic physical gags), concetti (romantic poetic verse) or other monologues they could incorporate into the action. Each character had a distinct repertoire of moves and stances that would have been developed and mastered by an actor over many years of playing the same role.
Masks, props, acrobatics, songs, dance and music were key features of this comic style, known by many different names. The earliest forms of commedia (commedia zannesca) are thought to have featured only zanni characters: the archetypal fool; the peasants who have come to the cities to try to find work. Their thought processes were simplistic, governed by physical and carnal needs for survival. For the character of zanni, the actor wore a mask, often with a long nose (it is thought that the longer the nose, the more dim-witted the character). Masks existed for female zanni types (zagna) worn by men, affording the opportunity for crude humour. It is likely that these masked performances were an evolution from the ‘vulgar comedy’ of festivals such as the Feast of Fools and the Feast of the Ass. The comedy of these early plays relied on crass, often violent humour, driven by carnal needs of the zanni.
The Stock Characters
Characters appeared in response to the social strata of the times and as need arose, with the actors gradually increasing the complexity of the narratives. There are literally hundreds of character variations but it is generally recognised that there are a handful of stock character types that always appear in the plays. Zanni is one such stock character type that is a collective term for all the low ranking servants of commedia, including Arlecchino (Harlequin), Columbina, Brighella and Pulchinella.
Il Vecchi (‘the old men’) joined the ranks of commedia, as a stock type that lampooned the wealthy, powerful landowners of Renaissance Italy. Pantalone is one such money-hungry boss who appeared in the productions by Venetian players. He became a master for the zanni; someone to be mocked by the underdog. The origins of Pantalone can be charted back to The Old Miser who featured in the Roman plays of Plautus. He is most likely based on the merchants that traded gold and lent money in Venice. The lynch-pin of the merchant class at this time was the - then - much despised Jewish community. Pantalone’s mask usually bears a hook nose, wrinkled lines and pursed lips and is typically played as an old, arthritic man who wrings his hands and protects his purse at all costs.
Another il Vecchi character is Il Dottore (The Doctor). He is a quack who is a self-proclaimed expert on any subject he so chooses - often medicine or law - depending on what the storyline requires. It is likely he was inspired by the charlatans who pedalled their wares in the 16th century market places, proffering obscure ‘cure-alls’, potions and ointments. His is a quarter mask, covering nose and brow allowing the actor greater freedom in the cheeks to speak with clarity and be seen as ‘human’. Il Dottore is a great orator who loves the sound of his own voice and may have well-rehearsed speeches (sproloquio) to be pulled out to hold an audience’s attention when cover is needed for a costume or scene change.
Il Capitano was introduced as another stock character; a stranger from out of town, usually a military man from Spain, who boasts of battles and victories. This character is one that derives directly from Roman plays where The Braggard was a familiar fop who told tall stories and arrogantly strutted about the stage (Plautus’ Miles Gloriosus written in around 205BC). In commedia, il Capitano is usually a sword-brandishing, show-off, but also often a coward when faced with danger or confrontation. Numerous variations of Il Capitano can be found in commedia scenarios - sometimes he is masked, sometimes unmasked; sometimes he is an incompetent phoney, sometimes a wealthy and eligible suitor.
Women on the stage
A key moment in theatrical history took place in the 1560’s when women entered the stage. There is evidence of female zanni roles (zagna) from the earliest documented commedia scenarios but it is thought that these were played by men in masks. It was the famous Gelosi troupe who began a revolution in theatre by formally introducing an actress, unmasked, as a high class 1st Actress known as Innamorata : the Lover. Actresses may well have played zanni characters - servetta - before this time, but again, it was not until Columbina, Franceschina, Rosalina (unmasked) emerged, that evidence of women on stage can be confirmed. The arrival of women on stage caused a sensation with shock and gossip, attracting voyeurs as well as considerable criticism, but the result was a surge in popularity for commedia and the prima donna was born. The female Lover was soon paired with an unmasked male Lover. These characters appeared sometimes as the children of the Old Men: il vecchi (Pantalone and Dottore) and enabled storylines to take on new depth and complexity. Isabella Andreini of il Gelosi was noted as a remarkable actress who could transform herself with disguises, feign madness and show her skill with a sword, if required.
Golden Era
The 17th century was the Golden Era for commedia as Italian comics dominated the European stage and the star system was born, firmly establishing acting as a legitimate trade. Popular commedia companies began traveling throughout Europe, performing most notably in Spain, England, Germany and in France, where the form became known as la Comédie-Italienne to differentiate it from la Comédie-Française. Louis XIV was a great supporter of the arts and he invited a commedia troupe to perform regularly at his court, until they mocked his mistress, Madame Maintenon, and he banned them from performing. It was in the court of Louis XIV that Jean-Baptiste Poquelin (Molière) discovered Commedia dell’Arte.
Meanwhile, in England, it is very likely that Shakespeare would have seen or at least heard accounts of the Italian Players and the influence of commedia is clearly visible in many of Shakespeare’s works. In the early 18th Century, the Harlequinade came into vogue featuring Harlequin, Columbine, Pantaloon, The Captain, Polchinelle and Pierrot. This was the forerunner of the Victorian Pantomime.
“The most popular entertainments of the first part of the 20th century … seem closely related to the Commedia. Indeed it is hard to conjure images of the Commedia without seeing Charlie Chaplin, W.C. Fields, Bert Lahr, The Marx Brothers … or Laurel and Hardy”
Classic Comedy
The influence of commedia can be traced throughout the history of comedy. Every classic comedy that has stood the test of time is indebted to commedia for hilarious, comic character types and physical slapstick and tomfoolery.
“…the lean and slipper'd pantaloon,
With spectacles on nose, and pouch on side…”
The wonderfully heightened, archetypal characters appear in many classical works, especially evident in those of Shakespeare and Molière. Some of Shakespeare’s narratives bear striking resemblance to the writings of Ruzante and Flaminio Scala. Without doubt, Shakespeare had heard about the Italian players - references in several plays explicitly evidence this knowledge. It is highly likely that he even saw them perform, as the Italian troupes were travelling throughout Europe and known to have been performing in London by the late 16th century.
From the stage to the screen, to music, opera and fine art, commedia has been kept alive and has evolved to become one of the most important and versatile art forms in history.
The evolution continues.
“Everywhere you go, it [commedia dell’arte] is acknowledged as the foundations upon which modern theatre was built.”
Useful Further Research and Reading:
Commedia Zannizine
is a quarterly online journal of detailed articles about commedia. With contributors from across the globe, including many of the foremost proponents of commedia, it is a treasure trove covering the history, artistry and performance of the form past and present.
UNESCO Appeal
There has been a drive for much of this century to get Commedia dell’Arte recognised by UNESCO. An association of commedia practitioners, SAT, was set up in 2005 along with an online archive to manage, archive and preserve heritage relating to commedia: http://www.incommedia.org This film was made in an appeal to the UNESCO committee to get Commedia dell’Arte listed officially as Intangible Cultural Heritage. If it doesn’t play click here to view the film
Robert Henke, Professor of Drama and Comparative Literature & Director of Graduate Studies, M.A. in Performance Studies at Washington University in St Louis, and author of several books and articles on the connections between Shakespeare and the Italian Comedies, offers some insight into the connections in this interview, on the podcast Hold That Thought:
“It important that we remember that Commedia dell’Arte was one of the primordial moments of interrelation among various nations”
We have also curated a useful commedia reference collection in a Google Books Library. You can access this by clicking here.
If you find problems accessing this or have any questions you would like to ask, do drop us an email.